A significant portion of the operational costs of a modern motor vehicle arises from the consumption of fuel. Motor vehicles with internal combustion engines typically burn fossil fuels such as gasoline. Gasoline and other fossil fuels are relatively inexpensive at the present time in the United States as compared to the prices in other countries, but the prices are subject to fluctuations and the potential of future increases in the event of political instability in oil-producing regions, increased taxes by governmental entities, or shortages of oil. Fuel can be very expensive for commuters, vacationers, cross-country truckers, or anyone driving a fossil fuel-powered vehicle. Increased fuel prices can also have a significant detrimental impact on the economy, as they can deter travel, increase the cost of transportation or manufacture of goods, etc. The relative usage of fuel by a motor vehicle is known as fuel efficiency, and is also known as fuel economy or gas mileage.
Motor vehicles, such as automobiles, sports utility vehicles (SUVs), vans, and trucks, require a propulsive force in order to move the vehicle. This propulsive force must overcome the drag of the vehicle in order for the vehicle to move forward. Drag on a vehicle originates from a number of sources, including aerodynamic drag and tire drag (resulting from frictional forces caused by the tire-road interaction). Propulsive force is typically generated by some sort of engine, such as internal combustion engine, fuel cell, electrical engine, etc.
Aerodynamic drag includes both frictional drag and pressure drag. Frictional drag derives from friction between the fluid (air) and the surfaces of the vehicle over which it is flowing. The velocity of the air moving over the surfaces of the vehicle is known as the free stream velocity. The free stream velocity is based on the speed of the vehicle and the prevailing wind. For example, if a vehicle had a speed of 60 miles per hour (“MPH”) and was heading directly into a 15 MPH headwind, the free stream velocity would be 75 MPH. Because of the air moving over the surfaces of the vehicle, a boundary layer is typically formed along the surface of the vehicle, serving as a transition between air at zero velocity right at the surface and air at the free stream velocity at the edge of the boundary layer. The boundary layer may contain both laminar (smooth) flow and turbulent flow. Often, near the rear of a vehicle, the flow “separates”, meaning that the boundary layer separates from the surface, resulting in eddies and fully turbulent flow. The drag caused by the air in the boundary layer creates frictional drag.
Pressure drag (also known as form drag) results from the difference in pressure between the front of the vehicle and the rear of the vehicle. Accordingly, it depends on the size and shape of the vehicle. When the airflow separates on the vehicle, as described above, lower pressures are created behind the vehicle than would exist in the absence of separation, resulting in increased pressure drag. This problem is exacerbated on less aerodynamic vehicles, such as SUV's and trucks, as their relatively blocky shapes cause additional separation and thus additional pressure drag. The pressure behind a vehicle may drop low enough, particularly when moving at high speeds, to create vacuum-like conditions behind the vehicle, resulting in very high pressure drag.
Aerodynamic drag is directly proportional to the coefficient of drag, frontal area of the motor vehicle, and the square of the velocity of the motor vehicle. The coefficient of drag, also known as the drag coefficient, (Cd), is a number that describes the characteristic amount of aerodynamic drag caused by fluid flow for a particular shape, such as a vehicle. The Cd includes the effects of drag caused by pressure drag, frictional drag, and induced drag (drag caused by positive or negative lift). Lower Cd's result in lower drag and thus improved fuel efficiency. A typical modern automobile has a Cd of between 0.30 and 0.35. SUVs and other larger, boxier automobiles, have Cd's of about 0.35 to 0.45. Tractor-trailer combinations can have Cd's of 0.6-0.9. For modern motor vehicles, the majority of the Cd is now based on pressure drag, as both frictional drag and induced drag have been greatly reduced by utilizing various technical advances. Reduction of pressure drag can therefore have a significant impact on the Cd and, thus, the fuel efficiency of a vehicle.
Vehicle pressure drag results from separation of the airflow around the vehicle and the resultant wake or separation bubble formed on the backside of the vehicle. Typically, when an airflow moves around the top, bottom, or side of a vehicle, the airflow will transition from a attached flow (often smooth and laminar) to a separated flow when boundary layer separation occurs. A vehicle with an optimized rear end, such as a sports car with a tapered rear, will allow for the boundary layer to stay attached for as long as possible, minimizing the separated flow behind the vehicle (and reducing pressure drag). A vehicle such as an SUV with a squarish design and flat rear end will have significantly increased separated flow behind it, as the boundary layers and thus airflows will separate near the rear of the vehicle, causing a larger region of low pressure. Depending on the particular design and conditions (e.g., vehicle speed, Cd, etc.), this lower pressure region can be close to a vacuum and extend a relatively large distance behind the vehicle.
In response to pressure from consumers and mandates from governmental entities (such as the Corporate Average Fuel Economy, or CAFE, standards in the United States), motor vehicle manufacturers have attempted to reduce the Cd and improve the fuel efficiency of their vehicles through a variety of technical solutions. While manufacturers have been somewhat successful in improving fuel efficiency, further reductions utilizing these technical solutions are likely to have significant aesthetic, cost, or performance disadvantages. For example, vehicle manufacturers have created aerodynamic shapes that have reduced drag significantly. Reducing the drag substantially further, however, will result in reduction of useful interior space, particularly in the rear of the vehicle. This downside is even more significant in trucks, vans, or SUVs where cargo capacity is a major selling point.
As another example, reduction of vehicle weight does reduce the tire drag of a vehicle (and thus improves the efficiency), but vehicles have been getting heavier over time as a result of increased safety functionality and other features. Reductions in weight would require elimination of features or more expensive, lighter materials, neither of which is desirable to either manufacturers or consumers.